Lecture Notes about Geosphere

Areas of earth sci

1.       Geology – study of the earth

Physical geology – earth’s interior, rock cycle, etc.

Historical geology – origin og the earth, evolution

2.   meteorology – about the atmosphere, weather and climate

ooceanography – study of the ocean and marine life

aastronomy – study of the universe

eenvironmental science – interaction between the biotic and its environment

system – interacting parts that form a complex whole

composed of :

*cycles

*powered by

-sun

-earth interior

Earth is divided into spheres

*geosphere – solid part of the earth

*atmosphere – blanket of air

*hydrosphere – liquid part

*biosphere – living organism

Minerals 0 basically consist of elements

naturally occurring inorganic solids with definite composition which gives them unique physical properties

rocks – aggregates of minerals

compound of minerals

Characteristics of minerals

inorganic – absence of carbon (organic: made of carbon

exception: graphite and diamond

naturally occurring

solid – composed of crystal structures

– organized internal arrangements

definite composition

properties of minerals

crystal structure – organized arrangement of the minerals

example: NaCl

cleavage – breakage due to weak bonding

fracture – no definite breakage

color – obvious feature of a mineral

streak – color of the mineral in powdered form

hardness – resistance to abrasion or scratching

determined by Mohs’ scale

Relative scale	Mineral
10	Diamond
9	Corunlum
8	Topaz
7	Quartz
6	Potassium
5	Apatite
4	flouride
3	Calcite
2	Gypsum
1	talc

luster – the quality of the light reflected at the surface of minerals

Mineral compositions of the earth’s crust

element	Approximate % by weight
O	46.6
Si	27.7
Al	8.1
Fe	5.0
Ca	3.6
K	2.8
Mg	2.1
others	1.7

Categories of mineral

silicate minerals

Olivine

Pyroxene

Amphibole group (hornblende)

                Micas – biotite

                           muscouite

                feldspar – orthodase

                           -Ca, Na

quartz

ores – minerals that can be used by profit

Non silicate

Mineral group	name	use
oxides	hematite	Ore of iron
	magnetite
	corundum	gemstone
	ice	Solid from of water
sulfides	galena	Ore of lead
	sphalerite	Ore of zinc
	pyrite	Sulphuric acid
	chalcopyrite	Ore of copper
	cinnabar	Ore of Hg
sulfades	gypsum	plaster
	anhydrite
Native elements	gold	Trade, jewelry
	copper	Electrical conductor
	diamond	Gemstone, abrasive
	sulfur	Sulfa drugs, chemical
	graphite	Pencil leads, dry lubricants
	silver	jewelry
	platinum	catalyst
halides	halite	Common salt
	flouride	Used in steel making
	sylvite	fertilizer
	calcite	cement
	dolomite

Rock cycle

Lava – exterior (less dissolved substances)

Magma – interior

Driving force

-earth’s interior

-energy from the sun

Igneous rock – originates at depths as great , consist primarily as silicates

Classess:

Where it is formed

Volcanic/ extrusive igneous- exposed outside, rock that results when lava solidifies

Plutonic/ intrusive igneous – formed inside the earth’s surface, rocks form when magma solidifies

Crystal sizes (texture)

Fine grains – igneous rocks that form rapidly at surface as small masses within the upper crust

Coarse grains – magma solidifies far below the surface

Pophyritic – molten materials crystallizes outside. If magma that already contains some large crystals, suddenly erupts at the surface, the remaining molten portion of the lava would cool quickly.

Glassy – ejected in the atmosphere and quenhed rapidly

Kinds of sedimentary rocks

Detrital sedimentary rocks – originated from weathere rocks

Large particles –

Conglomerate- rounded

Breccias- angular

Small  particle

Sandstone – sand size

Siltstone – fine particles

Shale – very fine

Chemical sedimentary

-formed due to chemical process ex. Chalk, coqina, taventine, quartz, coal, limestone

Lithification -  process by which sediments are transformed into sedimentary rocks..

Compaction

Cementation

Features:

Strata or bed

Fossils

Provides info about past environment

Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphism

Regional metamorphism – due to intense stress and high temperature associated with large scale deformation

Contact – in contact / near the mass of magma

Metamorphic agent

Heat – when rock at the surface becomes in contact with a hot molten material, such as lava

Pressure – decreases the volume ; differential stress- unequal force

Chemically active fluid – ex. Water

Classification of metamorphic ricks

Foliated – parallel alignment of crystals

Ex. Gneiss –feldspar

Slate and schist – shale

Non foliated – ex. Marble

External process

-occurs near or at the earth’s surface powered by the sun

1. weathering – disintegration of rock materials

2. mass wasting – movement of debris downslope

3. erosion – transportation of material with the help of erosional agent

Weathering –

Mechanical weathering – broken into pices each retaining the characteristics of the original

Frost wedging – continuous cycle  and freezing of water

Unloading

Biological activity

Chemical weathering – change in the composition , involves that alters  structure of mineral

Soil – the interface of all spheres of the earth

Controls of soil

Parent material – source

Climate – temperature and humidity

Time – the longer the time, the more soil is formed

Plants and animals

Slope

Soil texture

Sand >silt>clay

Soil profile

0 horizon – consist of loargely organis material ; upper portion is primarily plant

Lower portion is made up of partly decomposed organic matter

A horizon – largely mineral matter

E horizon – zone of elevation

B horizon - subsoil; zone of accumulation

C horizon – partially altered parent material

Panunuring Pampanitikan sa "Mga Landas ng Pangarap"

Panunuring Pampanitikan sa

“Mga Landas ng Pangarap”

ni Agustin “Don” Pagusara

(Unang Gantimpala, Palanca Awards 2005)

Nagtagpo muli ang landas ng dating magkasintahan matapos ang mahabang panahon ng kanilang paghihiwalay. Sa muli nilang pagkikta, naalala ni Eric ang lahat ng pinagsamahan nila ni Iris, mula sa kanilang pagbabarikad, sa mga sandaling nagpupuyos ang kanilang damdamin, hanggang sa paglalakbay nila sa Mendiola at sa Plaza Miranda. Nagging malupit man ang tadhana sa kanilang dalawa, di pa rin maikakaila na may nararamdaman pa sila sa isa’t isa.

Isa ang kwentong ito sa mga natatagong kwento ng mga estudyanteng kalahok sa mga barikada noong panahon ng Martial Law. Gaya ng ibang kwento, kakikitaan din ito ng karahasan ng mga naghaharing-uri, partikular na ang panghaharas ng grupong tinatawag nilang Metrocom. Kung ating babalikan ang mga kwentong may kaugnay sa panahong iyon, ang kwentong ito ay tumutukoy din sa pakikibaka at madugong labanan na may halong kurot ng pag-ibig. Gaya ng iba, naroon ang dalawang magkasintahan,  magkasamang hinarap ang mga kalaban, at sa huli ay naghiwalay dahil impluwensyia ng mga magulang, na gaya ng nangyari kay Iris na ipinadala sa Amerika. Napakakaraniwan ng banghay ngunit ang mga salita ay makapangyarihan. Nagkakaron din ng bisa sa kaasalan dahil naroon ang pagiging matapang at masigasig na katauhan ni Eric, yaong nagpapakitang ng determinasyon sa paghahabi ng pangarap.

Isa sa napansin ko sa kwento ay ang paggamit ng talinhaga at malalim na Filipino – isang di karaniwang lenguwahe ng mga mag-aaral na nasa kolehiyo. Ngunit napanindigan din ng mga tauhan ang pagiging estudyante dahil sa paggamit ng Taglish. Ngunit higit pa doon, nakakalikha ng ibang impresyon sa mambabasa ang bawat salitang binibitiwan ng mga tauhan.

Ang maganda sa estilo ng manunulat ng kwentong ito ay ang paggamit ng point of view na nasa ikalawang panauhan. Animo’y ikaw si Iris na pinag-aaalayan niya ng kanyang pag-ibig at buhay. Punong-puno ito ng emosyon at nag-uumapaw ang damdamin ng tauhan na siya nating masasabing isang Romantisismong akda. Napatunayan din ito ng mga sensuwal na kaganapan sa dalawang tauhan.

Teaching Students with Hearing Impairment in a Regular Classroom

Suggestions for Teaching Students with Hearing Impairment in a Regular

•      . Promote the acceptance of the student in the regular classroom

•      Welcome the student to your class.

•      Explain the student’s condition to the entire class.

•      Make modifications.

•      Accept the student as an individual with disabilities and limitations; discuss the student’s condition with him or her.

2. Be sure that the prescribed hearing aids  and other amplification devices are used.

•      understand and explain the use of hearing aids

•      Check hearing aids

•       encourage the student to take care of his hearing aids

•      Be sure if the student has spare battery at school

3. Provide preferential seating

•      Sit the students near the spot where you typically teach

•      Sit the student where he can see you.

•      Sit the students away from source of noise

•      Sit the student when light is on you face

•      Sit the student where he can use the better ear

•      Allow the student to transfer to other seats

4. Increase visual information

•      The student must see your lip

•      Try to stay in one place

•      Avaoid talking when your back is turned to the class

•      Avoid covering your mouth

•      Be sure that the student can lipread you

•      Use visual aids, such as pictures and illustrations

•      Demonstrate what you want the student to do

•      Use the chalkboard

5. Minimize classroom noise

•      Seat the student away from the noisy parts of the classroom

•      Wait for the class to be quiet before talking to the students

6. Modify teaching procedures.

•      Be sure that the student is watching and listening when you are talking

•      Be sure the student understand what you said

•      Rephrase question and instruction whenever possible

•      Write keywords, new words, and other needed information on the chalkboard

•      Introduce new vocabulary words in advance

•      Assign a student as “buddy” to alert the deaf student

7. Have realistic expectation

•      Remember his strenth and weaknesses

•      Be patient

•      Give the student a break from listening when he shows sign of fatigue

ISSUES that AFFECTS HARD OF HEARING HEARING, LATE DEAFENED AND ORAL DEAF PEOPLE

Access refers to the ability to take advantage of all the resources that we encounter in our normal lives. This includes entertainment, information, and social resources.
Oral Communication is the BIG ISSUE for most hard of hearing, late deafened, and oral deaf people, because it is a fundamental capability that pervades a person's entire life. Communications problems increase the complexity and difficulty of many areas of a person's life.
Emergency Planning refers to the process of determining how emergencies will be dealt with. As you might imagine, people with hearing loss are often left out of the process, which means that their needs are ignored.
Employment is a source of many issues for people with hearing loss. There are issues with getting a job and keeping a job. Something as fundamental as getting essential information can become extremely difficult.
Family is generally a source of support, encouragement, and comfort. This is also the situation for many people with hearing loss. Unfortunately, many others don't have that kind of relationship with their family. Many hard of hearing, late deafened, and oral deaf people report significant issues with members of their family.
Hearing Aid Affordability is increasingly becoming a significant issue among people with hearing loss. As the cost of hearing aids skyrockets, fewer people are able to afford the aids that can help them retain personal communications. Fortunately, there is a growing movement to include hearing aids in insurance coverage.
Identity issues are common among people with hearing loss. They often consider themselves to be hearing people who can't hear. A few are able to successfully integrate into the culturally Deaf community, but the vast majority see themselves stuck between the hearing world and the Deaf world, and involved in neither.
Isolation is a frequent result of hearing loss. Movies, plays, and concerts may no longer be accessible. Chatting with friends can become frustrating and unrewarding, and the person with hearing loss may withdraw further into their shell.
Hearing aids fix hearing loss like glasses fix vision problems. People with hearing loss can hear when they want to. If you just talk louder, people with hearing loss will be able to understand you. 
Services, or the lack thereof, are a source of frequent complaint among the hard of hearing, late deafened, and oral deaf people. Because their disability is generally invisible, they are often overlooked by organizations that provide services to disabled groups.

From "Introduction to Special Education" Ginez,et.al.

Reflection in "Special Children are Truly 'Special'"

 “Special” Children are Truly Special

By  Emma A. Ventil

I have learned greater truths in the years I have worked with individuals who have special needs than in the years I spent in the academe. The wisdom is sought did not automatically come from the certificate and diplomas although they helped mold my understanding. I found wisdom in the most unlikely places. Who would have thought that in the end, it is the teacher who learns.

Before I began teaching, I have grand notion of pushing children with autism to their limits. Guiding adolescents with Down’s syndrome to be all they can become, and helping adults with mental retardation maximize their potentials. The universe however, has a wonderful and beautiful way of enhancing plans. It dawned on me then that I was not just here to teach. I was here to learn.

These individuals made me courageous, creative, curious, dedicated, determined, forgiving, open, patient, receptive, sympathetic, and understanding. They carry with them the gifts of faith, trust, uniqueness, and wisdom. But most of all, they know more about acceptance, genuineness, and unconditional love than anyone of us.

In their little ways, they uplift souls, ease troubled minds, calm spirits, affirm good works, and acknowledge one’s presence – all without expecting any reward. It is 100 percent authenticity.

In my chest are: Benson’s kisses, Janice’s squeal of delight, Lalaine’s sprints, Mark John’s leap, Jomar and Ara’s hesitant smiles, Joanna and May’s first words, Daisy and Donna’s big hugs, Albert’s daily greetings, Angelo’s toothy grins, Allen and Ramele’s banter,  Rosemarie’s sensibility, and so on and so forth. All wrapped in love. All given freely.

How can I not believe in angels when I work and play around them everyday/ I often wonder if they know how much they affect our lives with unadorned pleasures that otherwise go unnoticed in world that run away in haste. How can I thank them for these and the countless simple and priceless delights?

They patiently do demanding tasks. They unconditionally accept inadequate beings like me. They appreciate even things that others disregard. They touch and care for another’s soul although they are the ones who need nurturing. All in package and again is misunderstood and not accepted.

I regard my work now differently every time I come from work. It gives me a sense of fulfillment and self-worth and pride to be in good company.

It is not always an easy task. There are days when even the sunniest sun cannot chase the gray clouds away. Yet one cannot be too sad, too frustrated, or too negative around children who cry when school is out. Nothing can rival that.

                There is so much to being a special educator. That not even the most attractive compensation package can offer. Our labor and love are not rewarded with great monetary gain or fame. Often, it is even challenged by family and friends who ask, “Why do you stay?” to which I reply “because I love what I do and I am happy here.”

                I live for the sound of my name on a pupil’s lips and for encouraging words from parents. I live for wordless pats and hugs that say, “You’re okay, teacher.”

                At the end of each day, I smile and heave a sigh of contentment, happy to have been needed, feeling grateful to have been allowed to enter a world that few people see.

                It is a common myth that special children live isolated in a world of their own. Oh, no. not at all, I declare. They live in my world. And, blessing of all blessings, they allowed me to live in theirs.

From The Modern Teacher, November 2005, pg.246

Shared by :

REYNALDO, Alma V.

III-7 BEED , SPED 1

My Reflection

 Just like the author, I have also other perception about special education. At first, taking up special education hadn’t been on my mind. I just want to have an specialization. I have no choice but to go for SpEd because of my classmates’ influence. Since I know that someday, there will be students who will have learning difficulties; I decided to make this thought as a motivation to attend every session.

However, because I find the SpEd class very alive, and because I have read this article, my insights and views about special education have changed. Today, I am happy that I am not regretting with what I have chosen. I felt that God had given me this opportunity to explore my horizon, beyond the normal teaching profession; I felt that God wants me to become not only a Teacher but a teacher beyond teaching. And, It is not me that will be benefitted. It is the children who need special attention and care from the people they do not know. Just like the author, I realized some things that I never realized before. Teaching children with special needs is beyond teaching itself. It makes you feel you are not just there only to teach but to ensure their lives and make them feel they are loved. It does not require you to be academically expert. It requires you to be patient, loving and understanding. Thus, sped teaching is not an easy task.

Furthermore, I realized that teaching children with special needs is not only teaching how to sing ABC, or teaching them how to do things. You are there to learn small things that normal people are not able to see or feel. As other teacher said, with them, you will feel only authentic love and concern.

With these, I feel inspired. I became enthusiastic to be a SpEd teacher. That is why from now on, I will study harder and remember the skills and knowledge a good SpEd teacher must have so that I will be equipped for my future students.

Prepared by:

 REYNALDO, Alma V.

III- 7 BEEd. SpEd 1

Inductive-Deductive Teaching

****credits to the owner of the article

Inductive-Deductive Method

Induction is that form of reasoning in which a general law is derived from a study of

particular objects or specific processes. Students use measurements, manipulators orconstructive activities and patterns etc to discover a relationship. They later formulatea law or rule about that relationship based on their observations, experiences,inferences and conclusions.

Example 1: Ask pupils to draw a number of triangles. Ask them to measure the three

angles of each triangle and find their sum. They will find that the sum of the three

angles of all triangles is 180o.

Example 2: Ask pupils to find the sum of two odd numbers like 3+5=8, 5+7=12,

9+11=20, etc. They will find that the sum of two odd numbers is an even number.

Deduction is the method in which the law is accepted and then applied to a number of

specific examples. The child does not discover the law but develops skills in applying

the same, proceeds from general to particular or abstract to concrete.

Steps in the inductive method:

1) The first step is clear recognition of the problem. It should be clearly understood

and defined by the pupils.

2) Once the problem has been defined, the child should start searching for data fromall possible sources like books, magazines, journals, making visits to certain places etc.

3) Under the guidance of the teacher, the pupils organize the data which they havecollected from various sources. They select relevant data and discard irrelevantmaterial.

4) By studying particular instances, the pupils frame possible solutions.

5) These solutions are discussed, argued and judged. Thus tentative solutions are

eliminated and only the probable solutions remain.

6) The solutions are applied to the situation and results are verified.

Merits of Inductive method

1) This method is psychological. The student feels interested in experiments,

experiences and discoveries.

2) This method fosters independence and self-confidence in the pupil which proves

very useful in later life.

3) In this method, children discover the solution themselves. Hence it develops and

encourages initiative and creative thinking.

4) All that is learnt using inductive method is remembered easily as it is self-acquired.5) In this method, the pupils observe and analyze particular objects of similar anddifferent nature and try to arrive at general truth.

6) Inductive method takes into consideration all the maxims of good teaching. The

process of induction calls for perception, reasoning, judgment and generalization.

Steps involved in deductive method

1) Like the inductive method, the first step is the clear understanding of the problem.

2) It may involve the study of a particular thing and phenomenon.

3) Principles and generalizations are reviewed to find the one which may be

applicable to find a solution.

4) In this step the rule, principle or generalization is applied to a problem andinference is formulated that the problem falls under such rule, principle orgeneralization.

5) Verification of the inference is done by applying it to a case. If it solves the

problem then it is accepted otherwise the procedure is repeated to find the correct one.

Merits of deductive method

1) Deductive method is short and time-saving. It takes little time to solve the problem

by predetermined formulae.

2) In the deductive method, the teacher’s work is very much simplified. He/shesimply gives a rule and asks the pupils to verify it by application to several concreteexamples. For example, students are told that the area of rectangle = Length xBreadth. Then a few sums are solved before the students. The students apply theseformulae to solve these problems and they memorize it for future use.

3) This method is very useful for small children because with small children we

generally use story or telling method.

4) This method glorifies memory, as the students have to memorize a considerable

number of formulae and definitions.

5) This method is adequate and advantageous during practice and revision stage.

Inductive Method Deductive Method-A Comparison

1. It proceeds from particular to general;

concrete to abstract.

2. It takes care of the needs of the pupils.It is a developmental process and takesthem through easy to difficult phase.

3. It encourages ‘discovery’ and

stimulates thinking.

4. The generalization or rule isformulated by the child; therefore heremembers it with ease.

5. The how and why of the process is

made clear through reasoning.

6. It starts from observation and directexperience and ends in developing a rulein abstract form.

7. It encourages child participation and

group work.

1. It proceeds from general to particular;

abstract to concrete.

2. In this method facts are thrust upon thepupils. The principle of growth is notconsidered.

3. The authority decides or gives the

formula and encourages memorization.

4. The rule is given to the child. He doesnot appreciate its nature and is likely toforget it easily.

5. The process is taken for granted and

accepted without reasoning.

6. Does not encourage learning but itstarts with a rule and provides for practiceand applications.

7. It demands individual learning and

treats the child as a passive recipient.

So it can be concluded that in inductive method we proceed from particular instancesto general laws or formulae. Through this method, children discover many new thingsthemselves and learning becomes very easy. It provides self-reliance and confidencein the students. Inductive method is slow and safe as the general law is reached step-by-step. Students climb up the stairs of thought leading to definitions, principles or rules.

In deductive method, we start with general law or formulae and then solve particularproblems by applying this law or formulae. It is a method of verification andexplanation and provides instruction. Deduction can give us the formal validitybecause the rule is taken for granted. The aim of this method is to fit the pupilgenerally for the battle of life.